When Did People Begin to Use Chewing Tobacco Again

Tobacco was long used in the early Americas. The inflow of Spain introduced tobacco to the Europeans, and it became a lucrative, heavily traded commodity to support the pop addiction of smoking. Following the industrial revolution, cigarettes became hugely popular worldwide. In the mid-20th century, medical inquiry demonstrated severe negative wellness furnishings of tobacco smoking including lung and pharynx cancer, which led to a sharp decline in tobacco use.

Early on history [edit]

Pre-Columbian America [edit]

Tobacco was first discovered by the native people of Mesoamerica and South America and later introduced to Europe and the rest of the earth.

Archeological finds point that humans in the Americas began using tobacco as far back as 12,300 years ago, thousands of years earlier than previously documented.^{[i] [2]}

Tobacco had already long been used in the Americas by the time European settlers arrived and took the do to Europe, where it became popular. Eastern N American tribes have historically carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted merchandise item, as well as smoking it in pipe ceremonies, whether for sacred ceremonies or those to seal a treaty or agreement.^{[3] [4]}

In add-on to its employ in spiritual ceremonies, tobacco is also used for medical treatment of concrete atmospheric condition. As a pain killer it has been used for earache and toothache and occasionally equally a poultice. Some ethnic peoples in California accept used tobacco equally 1 ingredient in smoking mixtures for treating colds; unremarkably information technology is mixed with the leaves of the small desert sage, Salvia dorrii, or the root of Indian balsam or cough root, Leptotaenia multifida (the improver of which was thought to be particularly skillful for asthma and tuberculosis).^[5] In addition to its traditional medicinal uses, tobacco was besides used equally a class of currency between Native Americans and Colonists from the 1620s on.^[six]

Religious use of tobacco is nonetheless mutual amid many indigenous peoples, especially in the Americas. Amongst the Cree and Ojibwe of Canada and the north-fundamental U.s.a., it is offered to the Creator, with prayers, and is used in sweat lodges, pipe ceremonies, and is presented equally a gift. A gift of tobacco is traditional when asking an Ojibwe elder a question of a spiritual nature.

European usage [edit]

The earliest image of a man smoking a pipage, from Tabaco by Anthony Chute.

Greek and Roman accounts exist of smoking hemp seeds, and a Castilian poem c.  1276 mentions the energetic effects of lavender smoke, but tobacco was completely unfamiliar to Europeans before the discovery of the New World.^[7] Las Casas vividly described how the first scouts sent by Columbus into the interior of Cuba establish

men with half-burned wood in their hands and certain herbs to take their smokes, which are some dry herbs put in a certain foliage, also dry, like those the boys make on the 24-hour interval of the Passover of the Holy Ghost; and having lighted i role of it, by the other they suck, absorb, or receive that smoke within with the breath, by which they become benumbed and nigh drunkard, and and so it is said they do not experience fatigue. These, muskets as nosotros will call them, they call tabacos. I knew Spaniards on this island of Española who were accustomed to take it, and being reprimanded for it, by telling them it was a vice, they replied they were unable to cease using information technology. I do not know what relish or benefit they plant in it.^[8]

Following the arrival of Europeans, tobacco became one of the primary products fueling colonization, and also became a driving factor in the incorporation of African slave labor. The Spanish introduced tobacco to Europeans in well-nigh 1528, and by 1533, Diego Columbus mentioned a tobacco merchant of Lisbon in his volition, showing how quickly the traffic had sprung upward. The French, Castilian, and Portuguese initially referred to the institute every bit the "sacred herb" considering of its valuable medicinal properties.^[8]

Jean Nicot, French ambassador in Lisbon, sent samples to Paris in 1559. Nicot sent leaves and seeds to Francis Ii and the King'southward mother, Catherine of Medici, with instructions to apply tobacco as snuff. The king'southward recurring headaches (possibly sinus trouble) were reportedly "marvellously cured" by snuff. (Francis Ii nevertheless died at seventeen years of age on v December 1560, after a reign of less than two years). French cultivation of herbe de la Reine (the queen's herb) began in 1560. By 1570 botanists referred to tobacco every bit Nicotiana, although André Thevet claimed that he, not Nicot, had introduced tobacco to French republic; historians believe this unlikely, but Thevet was the first Frenchman to write about it.^[7]

Swiss doctor Conrad Gesner in 1563 reported that chewing or smoking a tobacco leaf "has a wonderful ability of producing a kind of peaceful drunkenness".^[vii] In 1571, Spanish doctor Nicolas Monardes wrote a book about the history of medicinal plants of the new earth. In this he claimed that tobacco could cure 36 health issues,^[nine] and reported that the plant was first brought to Spain for its flowers, but "Now we use it to a greater extent for the sake of its virtues than for its dazzler".^[7]

Sir Walter Raleigh introduced "Virginia tobacco into England. "Raleigh's First Pipe in England", included in Frederick William Fairholt's Tobacco, its history and associations.

John Hawkins was the starting time to bring tobacco seeds to England. William Harrison's English Chronology mentions tobacco smoking in the country as of 1573,^[7] before Sir Walter Raleigh brought the first "Virginia" tobacco to Europe from the Roanoke Colony, referring to it as tobah every bit early as 1578.^{[ citation needed ]} In 1595 Anthony Chute published Tabaco, which repeated before arguments nigh the benefits of the plant and emphasised the health-giving properties of pipe-smoking. A popular vocal of the early on 1600s by Tobias Hume proclaimed that "Tobacco is Like Love".[2]

The importation of tobacco into England was non without resistance and controversy. Stuart King James I wrote a famous polemic titled A Counterblaste to Tobacco in 1604, in which the rex denounced tobacco use equally "[a] custome lothsome to the eye, hatefull to the Nose, harmefull to the braine, dangerous to the Lungs, and in the blacke stinking smoke thereof, neerest resembling the horrible Stigian fume of the pit that is bottomelesse."^[ten] That year, an English statute was enacted that placed a heavy protective tariff on tobacco imports. The duty rose from 2p per pound to 6s 10p, a forty-fold increase, only English demand remained potent despite the high cost; Barnabee Rych reported that 7,000 stores in London sold tobacco and calculated that at to the lowest degree 319,375 pounds sterling were spent on tobacco annually. Because the Virginia and Bermuda colonies' economies were affected past the high duty, James in 1624 instead created a purple monopoly. No tobacco could be imported except from Virginia, and a regal license that price 15 pounds per year was required to sell it. To help the colonies, Charles II banned tobacco tillage in England, merely immune herb gardens for medicinal purposes.^[7]

Tobacco was introduced elsewhere in continental Europe more than easily. Iberia exported "ropes" of dry out leaves in baskets to kingdom of the netherlands and southern Frg; for a while tobacco was in Castilian called canaster later on the word for basket (canastro), and influenced the German Knaster. In Italy, Prospero Santacroce in 1561 and Nicolo Torbabuoni in 1570 introduced information technology to gardens after seeing the plant on diplomatic missions. Primal Crescenzio introduced smoking to the country in about 1610 after learning about information technology in England. The Roman Catholic Church building did not condemn tobacco as James I did, but Pope Urban Eight threatened excommunication for smoking in a church.^[7]

In Russia, tobacco use was banned in 1634 except for foreigners in Moscow. Peter the Great—who in England had learned of smoking and the purple monopoly—became the monarch in 1689, however. Revoking all bans, he licensed the Muscovy Visitor to import 1.5 million pounds of tobacco per year, with the Russian Crown receiving 28,000 pounds sterling annually.^[7]

Asia [edit]

The Japanese were introduced to tobacco by Portuguese sailors from 1542.

Tobacco first arrived in the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century,^[11] where information technology attracted the attention of doctors^[12] and became a commonly prescribed medicine for many ailments. Although tobacco was initially prescribed as medicine, further study led to claims that smoking caused dizziness, fatigue, dulling of the senses, and a foul taste/odour in the mouth.^[13]

Sultan Murad 4 banned smoking in the Ottoman Empire in 1633. When the ban was lifted past his successor, Ibrahim the Mad, it was instead taxed. In 1682, Damascene jurist Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi declared: "Tobacco has now become extremely famous in all the countries of Islam ... People of all kinds take used information technology and devoted themselves to information technology ... I have even seen young children of nigh five years applying themselves to it." In 1750, a Damascene townsmen observed "a number of women greater than the men, sitting forth the bank of the Barada River. They were eating and drinking, and drinking coffee and smoking tobacco merely as the men were doing."^[14]

Australia [edit]

Although Nicotiana suaveolens is native to Australia,^[seven] tobacco smoking kickoff reached that continent shores when it was introduced to northern-dwelling Indigenous communities by visiting Indonesian fishermen in the early on 18th century. British patterns of tobacco use were transported to Australia along with the new settlers in 1788; and in the years following colonisation, British smoking behaviour was chop-chop adopted by Indigenous people as well. By the early on 19th century tobacco was an essential commodity routinely issued to servants, prisoners and ticket-of-go out men (conditionally released convicts) as an inducement to work, or conversely, withheld as a means of penalization.^[xv]

Usa [edit]

Economic history in the American colonies [edit]

In 13 Colonies, where gilded and silvery were scarce, tobacco was used equally a currency to trade with Native Americans,^[16] and sometimes for official purposes such as paying fines, taxes, and fifty-fifty matrimony license fees.^[17]

The demand and profitability of tobacco led to the shift in the colonies to a slave-based labor forcefulness, fueling the slave trade. Tobacco is a labor-intensive crop, requiring much piece of work for its cultivation, harvest, and curing. With the profitability of the land rapidly increasing, information technology was no longer economically feasible to bring in indentured servants with the promise of state benefits at the end of their tenure. By bringing African slaves instead, plantation owners acquired workers for long hours in the hot sun without paying them, providing only a bare subsistence to workers who could not get out or appeal to laws.

The uncultivated Virginia soil was reportedly too rich for traditional European crops, especially cereals like barley. Tobacco "bankrupt downwards the fields and fabricated food crops more productive" by depleting the soil of nutrients.^[sixteen]

Tobacco'southward impact on early on American history [edit]

The tillage of tobacco in America led to many changes. During the 1700s tobacco was a very lucrative crop due to its loftier demand in Europe. The climate of the Chesapeake area in America lent itself very nicely to the tillage of tobacco. The high European demand for tobacco led to a rising in the value of tobacco. The ascension of value of tobacco accelerated the economic growth in America. The tillage of tobacco as a cash crop in America marks the shift from a subsistence economy to an agrarian economic system. Tobacco'due south desirability and value led to it being used as a currency in colonies. Tobacco was too backed by the gold standard, with an established conversion rate from tobacco to aureate.

The increasing part of tobacco as a greenbacks crop led to a shift in the labor force that would shape American life and politics up through the Civil war. In guild to keep up with demand tobacco plantation owners had to abandon the traditional practice of indentured servitude in the Americas. In guild to pursue maximum profits, the plantation owners turned to slavery to supply them with the cheap, fungible labor that they needed to keep up with increasing production.^{[ citation needed ]}

Early cultivation of tobacco [edit]

In the first few years of tobacco tillage in the colonies, the plants were only covered with hay and left in the field to cure or "sweat." This method was abandoned after 1618, when regulations prohibited the use of valuable potential animal nutrient for such purposes. It was too abandoned because a better method of curing tobacco had been developed. In this new method the wilted leaves were hung on lines or sticks, at showtime outside on debate rail. Tobacco barns for housing the crop were in use past the 1620s.^[18]

During the curing period, which lasted about 4 to half-dozen weeks, the color of the tobacco inverse from a green yellow to a light tan. Mold was an immense danger during this time. Once over again, a planter relied on his experience to know when the tobacco was set up to be removed from the sticks on which it hung, a process known equally "striking."^[xviii]

At concluding, when the tobacco was ready, and preferably during a period of clammy weather, workers struck the tobacco and laid the leaves on the floor of the tobacco barn to sweat for somewhere betwixt a week or ii. Logs could be used to press the tobacco and increase its temperature, but with that there came a danger. The estrus might become as well intense and mold spoil the crop.^[18]

After sweating, the adjacent step was sorting. Ideally, all the tobacco should be in a condition described by cropmasters every bit "in case". This meant that the tobacco had absorbed but the right corporeality of moisture; information technology could be stretched like leather, and was glossy and moist. If tobacco were too damp, it would rot in transit; if too dry, it would crumble and exist unsalable.^[18]

In the early on years at Jamestown the settlers paid little listen to quality command, this attitude soon inverse due to both the market and to regulations. Over time, the settlers began to split up the tobacco into sections of equal quality. The leaves were and so tied together in Hands, bunches of five to 14. The Hands were returned to platforms to sweat. When they were once again "in case", the inspection of the crop could take place and the final processing for export begin.^[18]

Early on, the preparation of tobacco for aircraft was very simple. The tobacco leaves were twisted and rolled, and so spun into rope, which was wound into balls weighing as much every bit a hundred pounds ( 45 kilograms ). These assurance were protected in canvas or barrels, which would then be shipped to Europe. Although the export of majority tobacco was non outlawed until 1730, a large barrel called a "hogshead" soon became the favored container throughout the colonial catamenia. Even though its capacity varied slightly, governed by the regulations of the day, the average weight of the tobacco stored in a hogshead barrel was about a one thousand pounds ( 450 kilograms ).^[18]

These barrels were transported in a variety of ways to the ships on which they would be carried to England. At first, captains of merchant vessels merely traveled from one plantation dock to the next, loading upwards with barrels of tobacco as they moved forth the river. Other means included employing northern smugglers to ferry tobacco to England.

Plantations in the American South [edit]

This 1670 painting shows enslaved Africans working in the tobacco sheds of a colonial tobacco plantation.

In 1609, English colonist John Rolfe arrived at Jamestown, Virginia, and became the first settler to successfully raise tobacco (commonly referred to at that fourth dimension as "brown gilt")^[19] for commercial use. Tobacco was used as currency by the Virginia settlers for years, and Rolfe was able to make his fortune in farming information technology for export at Varina Farms Plantation.

When he left for England with his married woman Pocahontas, a daughter of Main Powhatan, he had become wealthy. Returning to Jamestown, following Pocahontas' death in England, Rolfe continued in his efforts to amend the quality of commercial tobacco, and, by 1620, 40,000 pounds (xviii,000 kg) of tobacco were shipped to England. By the time John Rolfe died in 1622, Jamestown was thriving as a producer of tobacco, and its population had topped 4,000. Tobacco led to the importation of the colony's first Black slaves in 1619.

Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, tobacco continued to be the cash crop of the Virginia Colony, equally well equally The Carolinas. Large tobacco warehouses filled the areas near the wharves of new, thriving towns such as Dumfries on the Potomac, Richmond and Manchester at the Autumn Line (head of navigation) on the James, and Petersburg on the Appomattox.

There were also tobacco plantations in Tennessee, like Wessyngton in Cedar Hill, Tennessee.^[20]

Modern history [edit]

A historian of the American Southward in the belatedly 1860s reported on typical usage in the region where it was grown:^[21]

The chewing of tobacco was near universal. This habit had been widespread among the agricultural population of America both Due north and South before the state of war. Soldiers had found the quid a solace in the field and continued to revolve it in their mouths upon returning to their homes. Out of doors where his life was principally led the chewer spat upon his lands without offence to other men, and his homes and public buildings were supplied with spittoons. Dark-brown and yellow parabolas were projected to right and left toward these receivers, but very often without the careful aim which made for make clean living. Even the pews of fashionable churches were likely to incorporate these familiar conveniences. The large numbers of Southern men, and these were of the better class (officers in the Confederate ground forces and planters, worth $20,000 or more, and barred from general amnesty) who presented themselves for the pardon of President Johnson, while they sat pending his pleasure in the ante-room at the White Firm, covered its floor with pools and rivulets of their spittle. An observant traveller in the South in 1865 said that in his belief vii-tenths of all persons higher up the age of twelve years, both male and female, used tobacco in some form. Women could be seen at the doors of their cabins in their bare feet, in their dirty one-slice cotton fiber garments, their chairs tipped back, smoking pipes made of corn cobs into which were fitted reed stems or goose quills. Boys of 8 or nine years of historic period and half-grown girls smoked. Women and girls "dipped" in their houses, on their porches, in the public parlors of hotels and in the streets.

Until 1883, tobacco excise revenue enhancement accounted for one third of internal revenue collected by the Us regime. Internal Revenue Service data for 1879-80 show total tobacco revenue enhancement receipts of $38.nine million, out of total receipts of $116.8 million.^[22] Following the American Ceremonious State of war, the tobacco manufacture struggled equally it attempted to adapt. Not only did the labor force change from slavery to sharecropping, but a change in demand also occurred. As in Europe, there was a desire for not only snuff, pipes and cigars, but cigarettes also.

With a modify in demand and a change in labor strength, James Bonsack, an gorging craftsman, in 1881 created a machine that revolutionized cigarette production. The car chopped the tobacco, then dropped a certain amount of the tobacco into a long tube of newspaper, which the car would then roll and push out the end where it would exist sliced past the machine into individual cigarettes. This auto operated at thirteen times the speed of a human being cigarette roller.^[23]

This acquired an enormous growth in the tobacco industry that lasted well into the 20th century, until the scientific revelations discovering health consequences of smoking^[24] and tobacco companies' usage of chemical additives was revealed.

In the Us, The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Command Human action (Tobacco Command Act) became law in 2009. It gave the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the potency to regulate the manufacture, distribution, and marketing of tobacco products to protect public health.^[25]

Wellness concerns [edit]

A lengthy report conducted in social club to establish the potent association necessary for legislative action.

Nazi Germany saw the first modern anti-smoking campaign,^[26] the National Socialist government condemning tobacco utilise,^[27] funding research confronting it,^[28] levying increasing sin taxes on information technology,^[29] and in 1941 banning tobacco in various public places as a health gamble.

In the Great britain and the United states, an increase in lung cancer rates was being picked upwards past the 1930s, but the cause for this increase remained debated and unclear.^[30]

A truthful breakthrough came in 1948, when the British physiologist Richard Doll published the kickoff major studies that proved that smoking could crusade serious health damage.^{[31] [32]} In 1950, he published research in the British Medical Journal that showed a shut link betwixt smoking and lung cancer.^[33] Four years later, in 1954 the British Doctors Study, a study of some 40 thousand doctors over twenty years, confirmed the suggestion, based on which the government issued communication that smoking and lung cancer rates were related.^[34] The British Doctors Study lasted till 2001, with result published every ten years and final results published in 2004 past Doll and Richard Peto.^[35] Much early research was as well washed by Dr. Ochsner. Reader'south Assimilate magazine for many years published frequent anti-smoking articles.

In 1964 the United States Surgeon General'due south Written report on Smoking and Wellness likewise began suggesting the relationship between smoking and cancer, which confirmed its suggestions 20 years later in the 1980s.

Partial controls and regulatory measures eventually followed in much of the developed world, including partial advertising bans, minimum age of sale requirements, and basic health warnings on tobacco packaging. Notwithstanding, smoking prevalence and associated ill health continued to rise in the developed globe in the starting time 3 decades following Richard Doll'south discovery, with governments sometimes reluctant to curtail a addiction seen as popular as a result - and increasingly organised disinformation efforts past the tobacco industry and their proxies (covered in more detail below). Realisation dawned gradually that the health furnishings of smoking and tobacco apply were susceptible only to a multi-pronged policy response which combined positive wellness letters with medical assistance to cease tobacco use and effective marketing restrictions, as initially indicated in a 1962 overview by the British Majestic Higher of Physicians^[36] and the 1964 study of the U.S. Surgeon Full general.

In the 1950s tobacco companies engaged in a cigarette advertising war surrounding the tar content in cigarettes that came to be known as the tar derby. The companies repositioned their brands to emphasize low tar content, filter engineering science and nicotine levels. The period ended in 1959 after the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Chairman and several cigarette company presidents agreed to discontinue usage of tar or nicotine levels in advertisements.^[37]

In lodge to reduce the potential burden of affliction, the Globe Health Organisation(WHO) successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2003.^[38] The Convention is designed to button for constructive legislation and its enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco.

In science [edit]

The tobacco smoke enema was the principal medical method to resuscitate victims of drowning in the 18th century.^{[ commendation needed ]}

As a lucrative crop, tobacco has been the subject field of a swell deal of biological and genetic research. The economical impact of Tobacco Mosaic illness was the impetus that led to the isolation of Tobacco mosaic virus, the first virus to be identified;^[39] the fortunate coincidence that information technology is i of the simplest viruses and can cocky-gather from purified nucleic acid and protein led, in plough, to the rapid advancement of the field of virology. The 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was shared by Wendell Meredith Stanley for his 1935 work crystallizing the virus and showing that information technology remains active.

References [edit]

1. ^ Nuwer, Rachel (11 October 2021). "Mammoths Roamed when Humans Started Using Tobacco at Least 12,300 Years Ago". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 11 Oct 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
2. ^ Duke, Daron; Wohlgemuth, Eric; Adams, Karen R.; Armstrong-Ingram, Angela; Rice, Sarah Thou.; Young, D. Craig (11 October 2021). "Earliest evidence for man apply of tobacco in the Pleistocene Americas". Nature Human Behaviour: 1–10. doi:x.1038/s41562-021-01202-nine. ISSN 2397-3374.
3. ^ e.1000. Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations who One time Inhabited Pennsylvania, p. 149 ff.
4. ^ "They smoke with excessive eagerness ... men, women, girls and boys, all notice their keenest pleasance in this way." - Dièreville describing the Mi'kmaq, c. 1699 in Port Royal.
5. ^ California Natural History Guides: x. Early Uses of California Institute, By Edward G. Balls Academy of California Press, 1962 University of California Printing.[i] Archived 22 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
6. ^ "Economic Aspects of Tobacco during the Colonial Period 1612-1776". Tobacco.org. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
7. ^ ^{a b c d due east f g h i} Ley, Willy (Dec 1965). "The Healthfull Aromatick Herbe". For Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 88–98.
8. ^ ^{a b} Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico p. 768
9. ^ "History of Tobacco". Boston University Medical Center . Retrieved 17 February 2017.
10. ^ "A Counterblaste to Tobacco". University of Texas . Retrieved 17 February 2017.
11. ^ Grehan, p.1
12. ^ Grehan, p.2
13. ^ Grehan, p.seven
14. ^ Grehan, p.three
15. ^ Tobacco in Australia
16. ^ ^{a b} "Tobacco: Colonial Cultivation Methods". US National Park Service . Retrieved 17 February 2017.
17. ^ "Scharf, J. Thomas". Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
18. ^ ^{a b c d east f} "Tobacco: Colonial Cultivation Methods - Historic Jamestowne Role of Colonial National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)".
19. ^ Jamestown, Virginia: An Overview
20. ^ Van West, Carroll. "Wessyngton Plantation". The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture. Tennessee Historical Gild and the Academy of Tennessee Press. Retrieved 3 March 2018.
21. ^ A History of the United States since the Ceremonious War Volume: ane. by Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer; 1917. P 93.
22. ^ 'The Republican Campaign Textbook, 1880.' Statistical Tables, P 207.
23. ^ Burns, p. 134.
24. ^ Burns, pp. 134–135.
25. ^ "Tobacco Command Act". US Food and Drug Administration . Retrieved 17 February 2017.
26. ^ Szollosi-Janze 2001, p. 15 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSzollosi-Janze2001 (help)
27. ^ Bynum et al. 2006, p. 375 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBynumHardyJacynaLawrence2006 (help)
28. ^ Proctor, Robert N. (1996), Nazi Medicine and Public Wellness Policy, Dimensions, Anti-Defamation League, archived from the original on 31 May 2008, retrieved one June 2008
29. ^ Robert North. Proctor (December 1996), "The anti-tobacco campaign of the Nazis: a little known attribute of public health in Deutschland, 1933-45", British Medical Periodical, 313 (7070): 1450–3, doi:10.1136/bmj.313.7070.1450, PMC2352989, PMID 8973234
30. ^ Colin White (September 1989). "Research on Smoking and Lung Cancer: A Landmark in the History of Chronic Disease Epidemiology". The Yale Periodical of Biology and Medicine. 63 (ane): 29–46. PMC2589239. PMID 2192501.
31. ^ Sander 50. Gilman and Zhou Xun, "Introduction" in Smoke, p. 25
32. ^ JM Appel. Smoke and Mirrors: One Case for Ethical Obligations of the Physician as Public Role Model Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ideals, Volume eighteen, Issue 01, Jan 2009, pp 95-100.
33. ^ Doll, Richard; Colina, A. Bradford (thirty September 1950). "Smoking and carcinoma of the lung. Preliminary report". British Medical Periodical. two (4682): 739–48. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.4682.739. PMC2038856. PMID 14772469.
34. ^ Doll, Richard; Hill, A. Bradford (26 June 1954). "The mortality of doctors in relation to their smoking habits. A preliminary report". British Medical Journal. 1 (4877): 1451–55. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.4877.1451. PMC2085438. PMID 13160495.
35. ^ Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I (2004). "Mortality in relation to smoking: l years' observation on male British doctors". BMJ. 328 (7455): 1519. doi:10.1136/bmj.38142.554479.AE. PMC437139. PMID 15213107.
36. ^ Regal College of Physicians "Smoking and Health. Summary and report of the Royal College of Physicians of London on smoking in relation to cancer of the lung and other diseases"(1962)
37. ^ "TOBACCO: End of the Tar Derby". Time. 15 February 1960. Archived from the original on 8 October 2010.
38. ^ WHO | WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC)
39. ^ Zaitlin, Milton (1998). "The Discovery of the Causal Agent of the Tobacco Mosaic Affliction" (PDF). In Kung, Due south. D.; Yang, S. F. (eds.). Discoveries in Plant Biology. Hong Kong: World Publishing Co. pp. 105–110. ISBN978-981-02-1313-8.

This commodity incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .

Bibliography [edit]

• Benedict, Carol (2011). Gilded-Silk Smoke: A History of Tobacco in China, 1550-2010.
• Brandt, Allan (2007). The Cigarette Century: The Ascent, Autumn, and Deadly Persistence of the Product That Defined America.
• Breen, T. H. (1985). Tobacco Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00596-6. Source on tobacco culture in 18th-century Virginia pp. 46–55
• Burns, Eric (2007). The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco. Philadelphia: Temple University Printing.
• Collins, W.G., and Southward.N. Hawks (1993). Principles of Flue-Cured Tobacco Production.
• Cosner, Charlotte (2015). The Golden Foliage: How Tobacco Shaped Republic of cuba and the Atlantic World. Vanderbilt Academy Press.
• Fuller, R. Reese (Leap 2003). Perique, the Native Crop. Louisiana Life.
• Gately, Iain (2003). Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3960-four.
• Goodman, Jordan (1993). Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence.
• Graves, John. "Tobacco That Is non Smoked" in From a Limestone Ledge (the sections on snuff and chewing tobacco) ISBN 0-394-51238-3
• Grehan, James (2006). Smoking and "Early Modern" Sociability: The Bang-up Tobacco Debate in the Ottoman Middle East (Seventeenth to Eighteenth Centuries). The American Historical Review 3#v online
• Hahn, Barbara (2011). Making Tobacco Bright: Creating an American Article, 1617-1937. Johns Hopkins University Printing. 248 pages; examines how marketing, engineering, and demand figured in the rise of Brilliant Flue-Cured Tobacco, a diverseness first grown in the inland Piedmont region of the Virginia-North Carolina border.
• Killebrew, J. B. and Myrick, Herbert (1909). Tobacco Leafage: Its Culture and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture. Orange Judd Company. Source for flea beetle typology (p. 243)
• Kluger, Richard (1996). Ashes to Ashes: America's Hundred-Year Cigarette State of war.
• Murphey, Rhoads (2007). Studies on Ottoman Social club and Culture: 16th-18th Centuries. Burlington, VT: Ashgate: Variorum. ISBN 978-0-7546-5931-0 ISBN 0-7546-5931-iii
• Poche, L. Aristee (2002). Perique Tobacco: Mystery and history.
• Toll, Jacob M. (1954). "The rise of Glasgow in the Chesapeake tobacco trade, 1707-1775." William and Mary Quarterly pp: 179-199. in JSTOR
• Tilley, Nannie May The Bright Tobacco Industry 1860–1929 ISBN 0-405-04728-two.
• Schoolcraft, Henry R. (1851–57). Historical and Statistical Information respecting the Indian Tribes of the U.s.a.. Philadelphia.
• Shechter, Relli (2006). Smoking, Civilization and Economic system in the Middle East: The Egyptian Tobacco Market place 1850–2000. New York: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. ISBN 1-84511-137-0

External links [edit]

• History of tobacco commodity from Big Site of Amazing Facts
• Boston University MedicalCenter
• History of Tobacco from License To Vape
• Tobacco in World State of war II
• information on tobacco and cigarettes

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_tobacco

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